Publications and Reports

In an attempt to provide its wider network with relevant literature on the management of human-wildlife conflict, the Human Wildlife Co-existence Research Network has created the following online database. Divided into sections corresponding to African regions (East, South, West and North), this database contains academic publications, expert reports and other documents.

Eastern Africa

Ethiopia

Human-Olive Baboon (Papio anubis) Conflict in the Human-Modified Landscape, Wollo, Ethiopia (2021)

  • Human–wildlife conflicts are increasing worldwide, and are typically most intense in human-dominated unprotected areas where local people, livestock and wildlife share the same landscapes. Such conflict becoming severe as wildlife species damage crops and predate livestock, and the subsequent factors undermine wildlife conservation efforts in a region. Between March and June 2017, I conducted a questionnaire-based interview with 124 local farmers to examine the extent of human-olive baboon (Papio anubis) conflict and their conservation attitudes towards baboons in Wollo, Ethiopia. All respondents reported that crop foraging and small livestock (sheep and goats) predation were the two main human-olive baboon conflict causes in the region. Most respondents placed olive baboons as the second most destructive crop pest after geladas (Theropithecus gelada), and as the first most small livestock predator followed by leopard (Panthera pardus). Most farmers placed bean (Vicia faba) as the first most frequently raided crop by olive baboons followed by sorghum (Sorghum bicolor) and maize (Zea mays). In the two years period (between 2015 and 2016), most (70.2%) respondents claimed that they lost their small livestock to olive baboons, with an annual average loss of 2.5 heads per year, equivalent to US$ 52.26. I found that most (80.7%) respondents had negative attitudes towards olive baboons, and 81.9% were not interested to olive baboon conservation in their localities. Most farmers agreed guarding as the best mitigation measures to minimize crop and livestock losses. The result shows that human-olive baboon conflicts create negative impact on both farmers’ livelihood and baboon conservation in the region. I suggest that to mitigate human-olive baboon conflict shifting guarding system among local farmers as the means of keeping crop fields and small stock, and educating people about the ecosystem services of baboons as well as creation of a protected area should be considered in the region.

  • Zewdu Kifle (2021)

    Global Ecology and Conservation, Volume 31, e01820

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Ethiopia

Beyond the numbers: Human attitudes and conflict with lions (Panthera leo) in and around Gambella National Park, Ethiopia (2018)

  • Human-lion conflict is one of the leading threats to lion populations and while livestock loss is a source of conflict, the degree to which livestock depredation is tolerated by people varies between regions and across cultures. Knowledge of local attitudes towards lions and identification of drivers of human-lion conflict can help formulate mitigation measures aimed at promoting coexistence of humans with lions. We assessed locals’ attitudes towards lions in and around Gambella National Park and compared the findings with published data from Kafa Biosphere Reserve, both in western Ethiopia. We used household interviews to quantify livestock loss. We found that depredation was relatively low and that disease and theft were the top factors of livestock loss. Remarkably, however, tolerance of lions was lower around Gambella National Park than in Kafa Biosphere Reserve. Multivariate analysis revealed that education level, number of livestock per household, livestock loss due to depredation, and livestock loss due to theft were strong predictors of locals’ attitude towards lion population growth and conservation. We show that the amount of livestock depredation alone is not sufficient to understand human-lion conflicts and we highlight the importance of accounting for cultural differences in lion conservation. The low cultural value of lions in the Gambella region corroborate the findings of our study. In combination with growing human population and land-use change pressures, low cultural value poses serious challenges to long-term lion conservation in the Gambella region. We recommend using Arnstein’s ladder of participation in conservation education programs to move towards proactive involvement of locals in conservation.

  • Fikirte Gebresenbet, Hans Bauer,Jacqueline M. Vadjunec, Monica Papeş (2018)

    PLoS ONE 1, Volume 3, Issue 19

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Ethiopia

Ethiopia

Human-Wildlife Conflict and Community Perceptions Towards Wildlife Conservation in and Around a Biodiverse National Park, Northern Ethiopia (2024)

  • Crop raiding and livestock predation significantly influence the perception of the local community regarding wildlife conservation. The primary aim of this study was to evaluate the scope, characteristics and origin of HWC, as well as local attitudes towards wildlife conservation within the vicinity of Kafta-Sheraro National Park, northern Ethiopia. A multi-stage sampling design was used to examine respondents opinions on the extent and underlying cause of HWC, communities' perception of wildlife conservation, the damage that wild species cause and traditional HWC mitigation measures applied. Respondents reported that the spotted hyena, leopard, and African elephant were the top three species involved in conflicts in and around Kafta-Sheraro National park. Livestock depredation and crop raiding were the most serious conflict types and respondents confirmed that illegal subsistence farming expansion and prohibited grazing were the main causes of conflict as well. environmental conservation education and managing the human-wildlife conflict are need to improve the local communities perception towards conservation and design wildlife conservation strategies in Kafta-Sheraro National Park.

  • Esayas Embaye Kidane, Seyoum Kiros, Abadi Berhe, Zerihun Girma (2024)

    Global Ecology and Conservation, Volume 54 

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Ethiopia

Examining the Roles and Attitudes of the Local Community in Wildlife Conservation of Ethiopia (2024)

  • This short review summarizes the roles and behavorial response of local communities towards wildlife conservation in Ethiopia. Traditional wildlife conservation practices are not documented well, and have likely been heavily eroded due to changes in governmental regimes. Local communities contribute a lot to wildlife conservation when they are allowed to participate in combating illegal wildlife trafficking operations. The illegal wildlife trade (IWT) is still a comparatively new phenomenon with a low scientific profile. Several studies have indicated that local communities antagonsitic response towards wildlife and conservation efforts is a result of eviction of Indigenous peoples, benefit denials, unequal benefit sharing, and interactions with wildlife and HWC. Thus, wildlife conservation in Ethiopia needs impartial studies and practical improvements to understand the human dimensions to inform more effective conservation and IWT prevention. 

  • Kabeta Legese Kerorsa (2024)

    International Journal of Ecology, Volume 2024, Issue 1 

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Kenya

Human–Wildlife Conflict, Benefit Sharing, and the Survival of Lions in Pastoralist Community-Based Conservancies (2016)

  • 1. Like many wildlife populations across Africa, recent analyses indicate that African lions are declining rapidly outside of small fenced areas. Community conservancies – privately protected areas that engage community members in conservation – may potentially maintain wildlife populations in unfenced pastoralist regions, but their effectiveness in conserving large carnivores has been largely unknown until now.

    2. We identify drivers of lion survival in community conservancies within the Masai Mara ecosystem, Kenya, applying mark–recapture analyses to continuous sight–resight surveys. We use the number of livestock and human settlements as proxies for potential human–lion conflict whilst controlling for environmental variables and lion socioecology.

    3. Average lion densities within the Mara conservancies between 2008 and 2013 (11·87 lions 100 km−2) were 2·6 times higher than those previously reported in 2003. Survival rates varied amongst prides and were highest for lions utilizing central regions of conservancies.

    4. The number of livestock settlements (bomas [corrals] and manyattas) that were not members of a conservancy, and that fell within a pride home-range, had a large negative effect on female survival and was the most influential external predictor in models. These non-conservancy settlements accounted for 37·2% of total observed variation in survival, whereas conservancy settlements, which benefit financially from wildlife through their membership, had no effect on lion survival.

    5. Internal drivers of survival agreed with known ecology and social behaviour including age plus a negative effect of male takeovers on cub survival <6 months. Vegetation cover, prey availability and the density of grazing livestock within a pride's range did not explain patterns in lion survival.

    6. Synthesis and applications. We show that lion densities have increased substantially within the Mara conservancies over the last decade and suggest that the creation of community conservancies has benefitted their survival. This suggests that lions can survive outside of fenced areas within pastoral regions if communities gain benefits from wildlife. We highlight the importance of expanding existing conservancies beyond their current geographical and political scope and forming buffer zones if wildlife ranges outside them. We suggest that changing attitudes to predators should be a key goal of community-based conservancies. Further work is recommended to identify what specific aspects of conservancy membership promote lion survival.

  • Sara Blackburn, J. Grant C. Hopcraft, Joseph O. Ogutu, Jason Matthiopoulos, Laurence Frank (2016)

    Journal of Applied Ecology, Volume 53, Issue 4, p. 1195-1205.

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Kenya

Preserving Lions and Culture: Conflicting Standards of Human–Wildlife Conflict (2019)

  • Conservation biologists predict that human–wildlife conflicts will increase in the near future as climate change forces the migration of both human and animal populations in search of increasingly scarce resources. These conflicts often capture international attention pitting wildlife against human communities, which are framed as savage hunters or uncaring consumerists. This framing often presumes that wildlife killing is optional, a sport or an outdated cultural activity. And while it may at times be all three, rural and traditional communities also argue that at times it is necessary to kill wildlife to save their children, communities and wildlife. This article explores one instance of such clash between human and wildlife communities, when in 2012 Maasai herders in southern Kenya were accused of illegally hunting and killing lions. Through an examination of multiple media sources, I ask how these events were framed, in what ways were the Maasai community’s traditions and perspective reported, and how did international stakeholders construct value criteria from which they argued for the protection of wildlife and against the protection of indigenous communities. Through this study, I aim to better understand the nuances of human–wildlife conservation and the differing ways that events are understood in local and international reporting.

  • Allison Hailey Hahn (2019)

    Journal of African Media Studies, Volume 11, Issue 3, sept. 2019, p. 347 - 358

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Kenya

Developing and Evaluating a Beehive Fence Deterrent Through Stakeholder Involvement (2022)

  • The Elephants and Bees Project, part of Save the Elephants' Human-Elephant Coexistence Programme near Tsavo East National Park in southern Kenya, utilises the natural avoidance behaviour of African elephants (Loxodonta africana) towards African honey bees (Apis mellifera scutellata) to protect villages and farmers' fields using beehive fences. This case study outlines the project's evolution since 2001, focusing on research to understand the impact of honey bees on elephants and the development, evaluation, and implementation of beehive fences across various Kenyan sites. Success has been measured through indicators such as farmers' perception of fence effectiveness and data showing active deterrence of elephants at implemented sites.

  • IUCN Species Survival Commission (SSC), Human-Wildlife Conflict & Coexistence Specialist Group (HWCCSG)

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Kenya

Developing an Insurance Scheme to Mitigate the Impacts Caused by Wildlife (2023)

  • The Livelihoods Insurance from Elephants (LIFE) project was launched by the IIED, supported by funding from the UK government's Darwin Initiative, to explore the potential of insurance in mitigating these impacts. Recognising Kenya's prioritisation of human-wildlife conflict, the project engaged local communities in Kajiado and Taita Taveta counties through inception meetings and market research to understand their perspectives and establish partnerships. Additionally, the Government of Kenya initiated discussions with insurance companies and convened a national consultation on the insurance industry's role in addressing human-wildlife conflict.

  • Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO), IUCN Species Survival Commission (SSC), Human-Wildlife Conflict & Coexistence Specialist Group (HWCCSG)

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Kenya

Kenya

Land use drives differential resource selection by African elephants in the Greater Mara Ecosystem, Kenya (2024)

  • Jake Wall, Nathan Hahn, Sarah Carroll, Stephen Mwiu, Marc Gross, Wilson Sariowua, Kate Tiedeman, Sospeter Kiambi, Patrick Omondi, Iain Douglas-Hamilton, George Wittemyer (2024)

    Movement Ecology, Volume 12, Article 11

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Kenya

Restoring Grasslands Led to Fewer Human-Wildlife Conflicts in Kenya, Research Finds (2025)

  • Grasslands are vital ecoystems for both livelihoods and biodiversity, yet are under increasing pressure of climate change and human activity. A new study led by Conservation International Scientists assessed how restoring degrading grasslands influences conflict dynamcis among local Maasai people and wildlife. Data collected from over 1,500 households indicate a significant correlation between the expansion of restored grassland areas and a reduction in both human-wildlife and social conflict.

  • Conservation International  (2025) 

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Mozambique

Mozambique

Human–Wildlife Conflict in Mozambique: A National Perspective, with Emphasis on Wildlife Attacks on Humans (2010)

  • Human–wildlife conflicts are common across Africa. In Mozambique, official records show that wildlife killed 265 people during 27 months (July 2006 to September 2008). Crocodile Crocodylus niloticus, lion Panthera leo, elephant Loxodonta africana and hippopotamus Hippopotamus amphibius caused most deaths but crocodiles were responsible for 66%. Crocodile attacks occurred across Mozambique but 53% of deaths occurred in districts bordering Lake Cabora Bassa and the Zambezi River. Hippopotamus attacks were also concentrated here. Lion attacks occurred mainly in northern Mozambique and, while people were attacked by elephants across the country, 67% of deaths occurred in northern Mozambique. Attacks by lions, elephants or hippopotamuses were relatively rare but additional data will probably show that attacks by these species are more widespread than the preliminary records suggest. Buffalo Syncerus caffer, hyaena Crocuta crocuta and leopard Panthera pardus were minor conflict species. Good land-use planning, a long-term solution to many conflicts, is particularly relevant in Mozambique, where the crocodile and hippopotamus populations of protected areas are often in rivers that border these areas, and cause conflicts outside them, and where people commonly live within protected areas. Poverty may prompt fishermen to risk crocodile attack by entering rivers or lakes. The high incidence of conflicts near Limpopo and South Africa’s Kruger National Parks (both within the Great Limpopo Transfrontier Conservation Area) highlights the problems created for people by facilitating the unrestricted movement of wildlife between protected areas across their land.

  • Kevin M. Dunham, Andrea Ghiurghi, Rezia Cumbi and Ferdinando Urbano (2010)

    Oryx , Volume 44 , Issue 2 , April 2010 , pp. 185 - 193

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Mozambique

Assessment and Mitigation of Human-Lion Conflict in West and Central Africa (2010)

  • The lion (Panthera leo) is most threatened in West and Central Africa; livestock encroachment and indiscriminate killing of lions are the main threats. Human-lion conflict mitigation is therefore key to persistence. Several experiments were carried out in the region to assess and mitigate human-lion conflict. In Pendjari National Park in Benin, enclosures of clay instead of the usual thorny branches reduced depredation figures by half. Around the Niger side of ‘W’ National Park, depredation was estimated at US$138 per household per year and occurred mostly while grazing; people identified improved herding as the most appropriate measure. A livestock corridor through a chain of protected areas has helped reduce conflict in Benoue National Park, Cameroon. Close monitoring and enclosure improvements reduced depredation from 9 to 0 attacks in enclosures and from 60 to 18 on the pastures of six villages around Waza National Park, Cameroon. Cases in Chad and Guinea identified yet other mitigation measures, including the use of dogs, sensitisation over rural radio and using relevant Sourats from the Koran; data on effectiveness are lacking, however. These projects illustrate a varied suite of mitigation options and demonstrate that mitigation can be effective if the method is judiciously chosen and adapted to local circumstances.

  • Hans Bauer , Hans de Iongh and Etotepe Sogbohossou (2010)

    Mamalia, Volume 74, issue 4

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Mozambique

Strategies to Mitigate Human-Wildlife Conflicts (2005)

  • The people of Mozambique are steadily lifting themselves up from one of the lowest levels of poverty in the world. In 2002, the national per capita income was $210 and more than 70% of the population are rural and rely on subsistence and small-scale agriculture for their livelihood. While the country’s wildlife resources have been plundered over the last 30 years, they are still very significant. Wildlife still represents a very valuable opportunity for the country and, properly managed, it can benefit the people that share the same area of land through sustainable utilization and tourism. National Parks and Reserves have been created, yet people continue to live within them (e.g. Banhine, Zinave). There are also significant wildlife populations in some Coutadas and game ranches and in some areas occupied by resident communities. As both the human and wildlife populations increase, and people occupy new land, the level of conflict is also increasing. This unresolved human-wildlife conflict is creating negative attitudes towards both the Government and proposed new wildlife related developments. In view of this, the national Government understands the urgent need to reduce the levels of human-wildlife conflict to ensure that where people do live with wildlife the benefits are greater than the costs. This report is the first step in the Government’s actions to understand the problems and then to mitigate them.

  • J.L. Anderson & F. Pariela (2005)

    FAO Working Paper.

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Mozambique

Building Institutional and Local Community Capacity to Manage Human-Wildlife Conflict (2023)

  • This case study delves into capacity-building efforts aimed at implementing Mozambique's National Strategy for Human-Wildlife Conflict Management (2009-2014). It analyses the lack of awareness among politicians regarding the causes and extent of conflict incidents, coupled with the underutilisation of effective mitigation methods.To bridge this gap, the FAO developed a Toolkit for extension officers, aimed at educating communities on appropriate responses. This also included a new database, presented to the Council of Ministers, which underscored the severity of the situation and highlighted effective tools, such as improved crocodile cages, for mitigating conflict impacts.

  • IUCN Species Survival Commission (SSC), Human-Wildlife Conflict & Coexistence Specialist Group (HWCCSG)

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Tanzania

Assessment of Conflicts Under Human-Wildlife Interactions: An Application of the Conservation Conflict Transformation Model in Communities Adjacent to Nyerere National Park, Tanzania (2024)

  • This study aims to understand and resolve complex social conflicts in communities neear protected areas. Currently, most attention is focused on addressing dispute-related conflicts, whereas underlying, and identity based conflicts are understudied, resulting in inadequate information in literature. Through the use of the Conservation Conflict Transformation Model (CCT), this study aimed to identify existing conflicts across three levels of conflict and assess current intervention strategies employed within the study area. Through questionnare surveys, the study revealed that the dispute level of conflicts was lower than the underlying and identity-based levels of conflict, emphasizing the limited scope of addressing conflicts arising from human-wildlife interactions (HWIs). To alleviate conflicts, respondents employed both lethal and non-lethal control techniques, with a preference for non-lethal methods. Sociodemographic factors including age, gender, household size, respondents attitute towards wildlife, and residence significantly influenced the implementation of intervention strategies. Further findings revealed that respondents faced several challenges including lack of consolation pay, exclusionary practices, and lack of transparency from local, wildlife and government authorities. The researchers recommend a holistic approach aligned with the CCT model to effectively address conflicts under HWIs.

  • Ivy Nanvula Simasiku, Beatus John Temu, Greyson Zabron Nyamoga (2024)

    Science of The Total Environment, Volume 951

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Tanzania

The Production-Protection Nexus: How Political-Economic Processes Influence Prospects for Transformative Change in Human-Wildlife Interactions (2023)

  • Advances a novel analytical framwork for investigating the influence of political-economic process in HWI to support efforts to transform wildlife conservation guidance. Majority of reserach and advocacy focuses on micro-leevl processes, so this article explores how the relative power of different political-economic interests within each case influences how the animals are perceived and valued, and how in turn influences conservation and their impact. Uses Tanzania and its lion population as a case-study. Lions are ranked as the second cause in terms of livestock depredation and has led to retaliatory killings of lions. Antagonism towards the protected areas they live in due to perceived lack of benefits and restricted use by local communities is a significant underlying cause of HWC.

  • Robert Fletcher, Kate Massarella, Katia M.P.M.B Ferraz, Wilhelm A. Kiwango, Sanna Komi, Mathew Mabele, Silvio Marchini, Anja Nygren, Laila T. Sandroni, Peter S. Alagona, Alex McInturff (2023)

    Global Environment Change, Volume 82 

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Tanzania

Co-developing a community camera trapping programme to deliver benefits of living with wildlife (2022)

  • The document discusses the co-development of a community camera trapping program in the Rungwa-Ruaha landscape in Tanzania to address human-wildlife conflict and promote coexistence. The program aimed to provide tangible benefits to local communities from wildlife presence, such as scholarships, healthcare, and veterinary support, in exchange for wildlife monitoring using camera traps.

    The initiative engaged and incentivized the communities, fostering a sense of ownership and awareness of the benefits derived from wildlife presence. The program also emphasised transparency, adaptability, and the need to address diverse community needs. It has successfully provided ecological data, engaged the community, and fostered a more sustainable relationship between humans and wildlife in the region.

  • IUCN Species Survival Commission (SSC), Human-Wildlife Conflict & Coexistence Specialist Group (HWCCSG)

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Tanzania

Giant Footsteps Forward 2023 Annual Report (2023)

  • The annual report written by African People and Wildlife highlights community driven conservation efforts. Through initiatives such as Warriors for Wildlife, there have been significant strides in mitigating conflicts with elephants and other species around Ngorongoro, and saved the lives of an estimated 59 carnivores in 2023 that were impacted by human-wildlife conflict. Along with mitigating HWC, they reflect on their efforts to empower rural and Indigenous women through beekeeping, mentoring young women in conservation training to help create a sustainable future, and collaboration with new villages and government to support climate-adoptive management. 

  • African People and Wildlife (2023)

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Tanzania

The Human and Financial Costs of Conservation for Local Communities Living Around the Greater Serengeti Ecosystem, Tanzania (2024)

  • The establishment of protected areas is a globally recognized strategy for conserving biodiversity. Yet, it also has adversely impacted local communities around these areas. This study collected and analysed large and comprehensive historical data sets on crop damage, livestock depredation and human attacks over eight years (2015-2022) from Serengeti’s District and Ngorongoro Conservation Area to understand human and livelihood losses to wildlife in the Greater Serengeti Ecosystem (GSE). Individual interviews were also conducted to ask communities about the loses and impact of wildlife in the area. They found that wildlife causes serious annual losses of crops (value estimated at USD 489,000) and livestock (USD 17,000) and on average 22 people from villages were injured and eight were killed each year. Compensation from the government only covered <20% of their total financial losses, and provided little to no support for injuries or loss of human life. Researchers encourage protected area authorities to (1) take greater responsibility for protecting local communities and their assets from wildlife attacks (2) assist the local communities with deterence and problematic animal prevention units in hotspot areas (3) and for the Tanzanian Government to review current compensation regulation to reflect actual loss.

  • Juma J. Kegamba, Kamaljit K. Sangha, Penelope A.S Wurm, John L. Meitamei, Linus G. Tiotem, Stephen T. Garnett (2024)

    Global Ecology and Conservation, Volume 52

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Tanzania

Tanzania

Deforestation and Water Availability as Main Drivers of Human-Elephant Conflict (2024)

  • A multitude of factors such as climate change, land use conversion and human population growth are reducing and fragmenting historical ranges of large animals in Africa. Particularly, land being transformed for agricultural purposes is leading to more instances of conflict between humans and elephants. This study investigates the factors affecting the intensity of elephant crop damage in the Selous-Niassa Wildlife Corridor in Tanzania. Results show that intensity of elephant damage (proportion of area damaged in an individual farm as a percentage) increased with crop palatability and land use conversion in the last ~30 years. Most farms that were impacted were within a close distance to waterbodies and had over 50% to 100% of palatable crops covering the farmland. 

  • Maria Montero-Botey, Emanuel Kivuyo, Noah Sitati, Ramon Perea (2024)

    Global Ecology and Conservation, volume 54 

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Uganda

Factors Influencing Ranging on Community Land and Crop Raiding by Mountain Gorillas (2015)

  • One of the challenges facing conservationists is the conflict between humans and wildlife due to competition for resources. Ranging outside the national park and crop raiding by mountain gorillas Gorilla beringei beringei around Bwindi Impenetrable National Park, Uganda, is a major concern because it has negative impacts on both wildlife conservation and local livelihoods, particularly due to the high density of subsistence agriculturalists living along the park boundary. The objective of this study was to investigate the effects of food availability inside and outside the park on the occurrence of gorillas ranging outside the park and crop raiding. We collected data on 13 mountain gorilla groups ranging in three general locations on the edge of the park over a 13-month period. Using generalized linear mixed models, we found that the number of days both ranging outside the park and crop raiding was positively influenced by the availability of both tea Camellia sinensis and pine (Pinus sp.) plantations and uncultivated land, all of which contain herbaceous plants eaten by the gorillas, as well as due to the availability of palatable crops [bananas (Musa sp.), eucalyptus (Eucalyptus sp.) and sweet potatoes Ipomoea batatas]. Our results suggest that ranging outside the park and crop raiding were influenced by food availability outside the park, not by a lack of food resources inside the park. To stop gorillas from leaving the park, we recommend removing herbaceous foods consumed by gorillas from plantations and uncultivated land and planting of buffer crops. If kept clear of herbaceous foods and planted contiguously along the boundary, tea plantations may best serve as a buffer to prevent gorillas from using community land. This study shows that the mitigation of human–wildlife conflict requires research to inform appropriate management strategies based on the species' behavioral ecology.

  • N. Seiler, M. M. Robbins (2015)

    Animal Conservation, Volume 19, Issue 2.

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Uganda

Provoked poachers? Applying a situational precipitator framework to examine the nexus between human-wildlife conflict, retaliatory killings, and poaching (2019)

  • The poaching of wildlife has received substantial interest from criminologists in recent years. In particular, prior research has attempted to better understand the factors that drive individuals to engage in such behavior. One driver that has been acknowledged is human-wildlife conflict. To date, however, there has been little research examining the situational factors that link human-wildlife conflict, retaliatory killings, and poaching. Moreover, there are few studies that have attempted to theoretically explain such convergence. Based on fieldwork in Uganda, and drawn from data collected from formal interviews, participant observation, and informal conversations with rangers, the present study demonstrates the utility of viewing the intersection between human-wildlife conflict, retaliatory killings, and poaching from a situational precipitator framework. Findings suggest that human-wildlife conflict can prompt, pressure, permit, and provoke individuals to engage in both retaliatory killings and poaching. Additionally, it was found that human-wildlife conflict directly influences community-ranger relations in Uganda.

  • Moreto, 2019

    Criminal Justice Studies, 32(3), pp. 63-80.

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Uganda

Human-Wildlife Conflict Mitigation Impacts Community Perceptions around Kibale National Park, Uganda (2021)

  • The attitudes of communities around protected areas are crucial for effective conservation. In western Uganda, around Kibale National Park, locals face frequent crop destruction from wildlife, including endangered species like African elephants and chimpanzees. This leads to resentment towards the park and its animals. To address this, this participatory action research project tested four sustainable conflict mitigation strategies: trenches, beehive fences, tea buffers, and garlic as a cash crop. Surveys of participating and non-participating communities showed that involvement in these strategies led to more positive attitudes towards KNP and the Uganda Wildlife Authority. This research informs future conservation efforts in areas where human-wildlife conflict occurs.

  • L. Kolinski & K. Milich (2021)

    Diversity 2021, 13(4), 145

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Uganda

Perceptions of Nonhuman Primates in Human-Wildlife Conflict Scenarios (2010)

  • Nonhuman primates (referred to as primates in this study) are sometimes revered as gods, abhorred as evil spirits, killed for food because they damage crops, or butchered for sport. Primates' perceived similarity to humans places them in an anomalous position. While some human groups accept the idea that primates “straddle” the human–nonhuman boundary, for others this resemblance is a violation of the human–animal divide. In this study we use two case studies to explore how people's perceptions of primates are often influenced by these animals' apparent similarity to humans, creating expectations, founded within a “human morality” about how primates should interact with people. When animals transgress these social rules, they are measured against the same moral framework as humans. This has implications for how people view and respond to certain kinds of primate behaviors, their willingness to tolerate co-existence with primates and their likely support for primate conservation initiatives.

  • Catherine M. Hill, Amanda D. Webber (2010)

    The American Journal of Primatology, Volume 72, Issue 10.

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Uganda

A descriptive study of zoonotic disease risk at the human-wildlife interface in a biodiversity hot spot in South Western Uganda (2021)

  • Zoonotic diseases are a growing public health threat due to spillover events at the human-wildlife interface. This study in Hoima District, Uganda, examined activities that could lead to disease spillover and assessed community perceptions and healthcare adequacy regarding zoonotic diseases. Most people were unaware of zoonotic diseases, largely due to a lack of information reaching the grassroots level. Wildlife-human interactions, driven by survival needs, complicate predictions of disease emergence. Major outbreaks often start at the community level, where awareness of such diseases is minimal. The study recommends investing in health education and creating awareness about zoonotic diseases through collaboration with government agencies and partners, using evidence-based health promotion and livelihood interventions.

  • S. Namusisi, M. Mahero, D. Travis, K. Pelican, C. Robertson, L. Mugisha (2021)

    PLoS neglected tropical diseases, 15.1

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Uganda

Uganda and DRC

Distribution of African Savanna Elephants (Loxodonta Africana), African Forest Elephants (L. Cyclotis), and their Hybrids Across Africa Based on Genetic Evidence (2025)

  • The International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) recently recognized forest and savanna elephants as distinct species, respectively Loxodonta cyclotis and L. africana and have begun to assess the status, extinction risk, movement patterns and behavorial characteristics of each species separately. Researchers within the study analysed 2245 known-origin elephant samples from across Africa for presence of the two species and hybrids between them, and augmented this with hybrid detection in 4883 ivory contraband. Hybrids were rare overall (6.6% of reference, and 1.5% contraband) with 70% in the Albertine Rift major hybrid zone in eastern DRC and Southwest Uganda. Research is needed to investigate the diet, habitat preferences, mating preferences and other behavior of hybrids relative to sympatric pure species and to further investigate drivers of hybridizaiton to understand and manage possible issues associated with the presence of hybrids. In particular, it is important to understand if hybrids are more prone to human elephant conflict and if their movement and foraging patterns vary different their pure species counterpart. 

  • Mary K. Kuhner, Kathleen S. Gobush, Zofia A. Kaliszewska, Ryan Horwitz, Samuel K. Wasser (2025)

    Global Ecology and Conservation, Volume 59

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Uganda, Rwanda

Human-wildlife conflict management: Experiences and lessons learned from the greater virunga landscape (2013)

  • This study was conducted by the Institute of Tropical Forest Conservation (ITFC) of Mbarara University of Science and Technology, Uganda, with the support of the Greater Virunga Transboundary Secretariat, based in Kigali, Rwanda. The main objective of the study was collect and synthesize information about the experiences and lessons learned on Human-Wildlife Conflict management in the seven protected areas of the Greater Virunga Landscape - Semuliki, Rwenzori Mountains, Queen Elizabeth (including Kyambura and Kigezi Wildlife Reserves), Bwindi Impenetrable, Mgahinga Gorilla National Parks in Uganda, Volcanoes National Park in Rwanda, and Virunga National Park in DR Congo. Information on Human-Wildlife Conflict management experiences and expertise of the various stakeholders from the different sites is scattered in published scholarly literature, unpublished documents and reports, some already archived or obscure, or the information is “stored” in the great minds of individuals who initiated and/or implement the Human-Wildlife Conflict mitigation programs. These useful and informative sources are extremely hard to access, making it exceedingly difficult to know what has been done and where, the successes, challenges and lessons learned on Human-Wildlife Conflict management. There is virtually little or no coordination among the sites implementing the Human-Wildlife Conflict interventions. Lack of coordination sometimes results in protected area managers unknowingly repeating the same mistakes in Human-Wildlife Conflict management that have been committed elsewhere and also makes the scaling up of successful Human-Wildlife Conflict reduction strategies near to impossible. Given the politically volatile nature of the conflict between humans and wildlife, there is an urgent need to synthesize and summarize the existing information on the experiences and lessons learned on Human-Wildlife Conflict management so that the information can be easily accessed and disseminated to the stakeholders so as to inform management efforts on reducing crop/livestock loss, injuries or deaths due to wildlife, form a basis for collaboration among the different protected areas managers, and formulation of appropriate policy on Human-Wildlife Conflict. The three countries in GVL have different wildlife policies and laws. Their evolution is linked to the different governance histories that date back to the colonial period in the early 19th century when protected areas were established and the post-establishment war and insecurity that have bedeviled each country at different time periods in the last 50 years. Today, the participation of local populations and authorities in the management of Human-Wildlife Conflict is being formalized and institutionalized in Uganda and Rwanda compared to DR Congo where participatory management is still in its infancy. Such difference in policy and legislation and their evolution creates difficulty when it comes to managing problem animals in transboundary protected areas. Rwanda has amended its wildlife laws to cater for compensation due to damages and injuries caused by wildlife. In DR Congo, a ministerial directive has been made to ICCN to look into the modalities of also implementing a compensation scheme. In spite of all the protected areas lying in the same region, the Human-Wildlife Conflict situation varies among the three countries and the seven protected areas. The interaction between wildlife and people is correlated to factors like the ecology of the protected areas - vegetation/habitat type, topography, animal composition, distribution and population density, and human related issues like land use, social-economic/cultural conditions, population distribution and density on areas that border the protected areas. We, therefore, made a situational analysis of Human-Wildlife Conflict specific to each protected area based on information available in the last decade or so. In Queen Elizabeth, Uganda, elephants are the major problem, Bwindi, Uganda, it is the elephants, baboons and habituated mountain gorillas, Mgahinga, Uganda, buffaloes are the major raiders, while in Rwenzori Mountains, Uganda, it is the bush pigs and monkeys. In the Semuliki, Uganda, baboons and buffaloes are the main problem animals, in Virunga, DR Congo, it is the elephants and buffaloes, whereas in Volcanoes, Rwanda, it is the buffaloes and habituated mountain gorillas. A variety of strategies are in use around the protected areas in GVL in an attempt to physically deter wildlife from crossing over to cultivated fields and/or by increasing public tolerance for wildlife. The interventions vary from protected area to protected area depending on animal species, farming systems and strategies, measures that have been tested and accepted by local communities, and biophysical features of the area/site.

  • Dennis Babaasa, Emmanuel Akampulira, and Robert Bitariho (2013)

    INSTITUTE OF TROPICAL FOREST CONSERVATION MBARARA UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY, UGANDA

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Uganda

Evidence for increasing human-wildlife conflict despite a financial compensation scheme on the edge of a Ugandan National Park (2020)

  • The conflict between large carnivores and agro-pastoral communities is a major driver of carnivore decline globally. In Uganda, where tourism significantly contributes to GDP, species like African leopards, spotted hyenas, and African lions attract tourists but also damage livestock near national parks. A private safari lodge in Lake Mburo National Park has used a financial compensation scheme since 2009 to reduce conflict between these carnivores and local Bahima pastoralist communities. The study analyzed 1,102 depredation events from 2009 to 2018, finding that spotted hyenas were responsible for most livestock losses, primarily occurring at night and within livestock pens. Depredation was more common in rugged areas, near human settlements and park borders, and away from water sources. No seasonal pattern was observed. However, conflict and depredation claims tripled from 2014-2018 compared to 2009-2013, raising concerns about the scheme's financial sustainability. The study underscores the need for careful planning in compensation fund sustainability and clear rules for claims to ensure long-term success.

  • A. Braczkowski, J. Fattebert, R. Schenk, C. O'Bryan, D. Biggs, M. Maron (2020)

    Conservation Science and Practice Volume 2, Issue 12

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Uganda

Sustainable Human-Wildlife Conflict Management Strategies Around Busitema Central Forest Reserve, Eastern Uganda (2021)

  • The study aimed to develop sustainable human-wildlife coexistence strategies to resolve conflicts around Busitema Central Forest Reserve. Researchers examined the nature of these conflicts through questionnaires, interviews, and focus group discussions, corroborated by field observations. Data analysis revealed that primates were the main wildlife causing conflicts, primarily through crop raiding and livestock predation. Humans, in turn, impacted wildlife through habitat destruction and road accidents. Local communities suggested equitable compensation and greater community involvement in conservation as effective coexistence strategies. The study concluded that prioritizing community involvement and planting non-conflict crops like tea and eucalyptus around protected areas could enhance wildlife habitats and mitigate conflicts.

  • R. Turyahabwe, J. Asaba, A. Mulabbi, M. Paul (2021)

    East African Journal of Forestry and Agroforestry, Volume 3(1), pp. 62-76

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Sub-Saharan Africa (with focus on the Democratic Republic of Congo, Rwanda)

Gorillas in the midst: the impact of armed conflict on the conservation of protected areas in sub-Saharan Africa (2007)

  • The frequently anecdotal nature of evidence concerning the impact of warfare on conservation poses numerous problems and there have been calls to apply a strict set of conditions to such data to improve the rigor of scientific analysis in this field. To illustrate the difficulties, however, of applying strict quantitative conditions on such data a deterministic model of conflict-linked deforestation in sub-Saharan Africa was constructed and the implications of the model discussed. Our model indicates that from 1990–2005 approximately 35,000 ha of timber have been used to support officially recorded UN refugees in this region: this is a continuing impact, albeit quantified using data with some potential error. An alternative semi-quantitative approach was also used, with reported environmental impacts of conflict assessed for reliability and severity using a number of empirical criteria. Data focusing on the Democratic Republic of Congo and Rwanda were subsequently analysed using this framework. Illegal resource exploitation was identified as the primary impact resulting from conflict and, in some instances, a driver of the hostilities. From the joint consideration of the conflict and post-conflict phases such exploitation is concluded to be the product of lawlessness and anarchy generated by violent uprisings rather than violence per se. As such, armed conflict does not pose a novel threat to protected areas but rather amplifies threats extant during peace, creating a need for appropriate responses by those involved in conservation management. With both the occurrence and violence of conflicts in sub-Saharan Africa increasing, the impacts of warfare are pertinent to both the immediate and long-term management of biological resources in the region.

  • L. Glew and M.D. Hudson (2007)

    Oryx, Volume 41, Issue 2

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Rwanda, Uganda

The Quality of Life and Perceived Human-Wildlife Conflicts among Forest Communities around the Mountain Gorilla’s Virunga Landscape in Africa (2023)

  • This article examines the relationships between human perceptions of conflict with wildlife and satisfaction with the quality of life in the Virunga landscape in Africa where mountain gorillas live. In addition, it explores how determinants of quality of life may indirectly influence the perceptions of conflict between people and wildlife. Using the bottom-up spillover theory of life satisfaction, it is hypothesized that quality of life is determined by access to critical livelihood resources, such as food, healthcare, and income. Furthermore, socio-psychological conditions, such as emotional and psychological strength, may mediate the relationship between access to resources and quality of life. This study revealed that life satisfaction positively predicts perceptions of conflict between humans and wildlife. The findings also indicated that health and psychological conditions were the strongest predictors of life satisfaction compared to food and financial security. However, the findings revealed variations by country. For example, food security predicts life satisfaction in Rwanda but not in Uganda. Health security predicts emotional wellbeing in Rwanda but not in Uganda. These results indicate that the nature of the relationship between wellbeing indicators and perceived Human-Wildlife conflict is likely country-specific. Therefore, efforts to strengthen the quality of life to indirectly advance wildlife conservation goals may need to be different in Uganda and Rwanda. The findings also suggest that investing in improving the quality of life of forest communities may incentivize increased perceptions of Human-Wildlife conflict. This is likely a result of pervasive consequences of increased funding for community development programs to incentivize conservation, which risks associating conflict with funding. Additional implications for practice and research are discussed in the paper.

  • Hans Bauer , Hans de Iongh and Etotepe Sogbohossou (2010)

    Sustainability 2023, Volume 15, Issue 3

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Reimagining Protected and Conserved Areas in Africa: Perspectives from the First Africa Protected Areas Congress (2023)

  • This study shares perspectives on how the first Africa Protected Areas Congress (APAC) held in Kigali, Rwanda 2022, could potentially influence a paradigm shift in biodiversity and wildlife conservation in Africa. Conservation strategies in Africa must be driven by urgency to make PCAs people centered, advance integrated approaches to tackle drivers of biodiversity loss, and promote sustainable and innovate financing for PCAs. Bakaar discusses how African countries can address these needs to harness the full potential of PCAs and ensure their long-term sustainability.

  • Mohamed I. Bakaar (2023)

    Conservation Letters, Volume 16, Issue 2 

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Others

African Grasslands

Climate Change Influences the Risk of Physically Harmful Human-Wildlife Interactions (2023)

  • This study aims to illustrate the importance of bridging the gap between the fields of wildlife research and human security under climate change. Analyzing 331 media reports on climate change driven human wildlife conflicts involving physically dangerous species, this study identified four climate driven trends that impact the risk of human casualties (1) increased resource competition between humans and wildlife due to drought (2) range expansion of dangerous animals due to higher average temperatures (3) temporary displacement of wildlife due to extreme weather events (4) and changes in temporal behavior patterns of wildlife due to higher average temperatures

  • Amy Newsom, Zita Sebesvari, Ine Dorresteijn (2023)

    Biological Conservation, Volume 286

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Southern Africa

Work in progress…